A New York geography for the BoM

An old friend of mine, specialist in Indian languages, pointed me to this map comparison from a book by Verne Holley,  unfortunately out of print, which suggests that Joseph Smith Jr tried to write the local history during the American Antiquities of the area he grew up in.

The alignment of the names is quite fascinating; I suspect that Joseph Smith Jr must have felt like a linguistics scholar when decoding how the names had changed over time.

"Uncle" Dean Broadhurst now hosts the third edition of Holley's work from 1998, where the Spalding manuscript theory is used as the basis of the discussion that Holley pursues.

Maps of Meaning and Peter Jackson

Right out of the box let me note that I did not read even the majority of Peter Jackson's often intricate arguments and review of other people's research in his book Maps of Meaning: An Introduction to Cultural Geography, New York (Routledge) 1989. But here are a couple of thoughts that stuck with me when leafing through the book. 

There were successful combinations of spatial and sociological arguments, such as David Ley's analysis in The Black Inner City as Frontier Outpost (= Monograph Series no. 7), Washington, DC (Association of American Geographers), 1974, of inter-gang violence in Philadelphia, that marked out the territories of the gangs, overlaid them on a map, and then showed with lines of various thickness where the hotspots of violence occurred (chapter Culture and Ideology, section Territorial Struggles, pp.68-70; map on p.71); or the collaboration between Ley and R. Cybriwski, Urban graffiti as territorial markers, in: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol 64 (1974), pp.491-505, which argued that graffitis are used as markers in contested border areas (pp.70; map on p.73), previously identified by the gang-violence analysis. 

Thus, arguments of spatial correlation of events are possible that would be hard to spot in other representations. The problem is that the objects that are identified in the environment are configurations of physicality, but the mere mapping of the physical is insufficient. As Jackson puts it in his summary,

Too often in the past, cultural geography has degenerated into the an inventory of 'culture traits', mapping physical artifacts like barns and fences that are visible in the landscape. (p.180)

I take Jackson to mean that, unlike the graffiti investigations, the objects are so noticeable that they force themselves upon the attention of the geographer without any theory to make them stand out or have the geographer go looking for them. The graffiti themselves, while physical configurations, are only meaningful for the mapping process if they are related back to the gang that produced them, and if temporal qualifications, such as order of application or inter-graffiti relationships, are gathered as well. They require a background-theory that allows the association of the tag back to the gang, which is external to the signs.

The alternative approach adopted here is to view culture as the medium or idiom through which meanings are expressed. If one accepts the preceding arguments for a plurality of cultures, then 'culture' is the domain in which these meanings are contested. (p.180)

The situation is even cleared in the case of the mapping of gang violence; though these events and their properties can be localized in space, they no longer persist in space; they are ephemeral and thus require a theory to find them and a GIS to put them into spatial relations. The configuration of the neighborhood, however, which provides the relations of proximity for the analysis of the events, is a separate mapping. Equally separate is the territorial claims of the gangs and their associations. This association may be even more meaningful in situations of collaboration; the Philadelphia setting seems more of a all-against-all configuration, where alliances are not present. Thus the argument is based on a four-way mashup of independent data that is unified across time and space.

1. The incidents of violence, coded as localized gang vs gang expression with a specific severity.
2. The spatial configuration of the neighborhood.
3. The territorial claims of the gangs.
4. The inter-gang alliances (which may be the empty set).

The punchline of Jackson's observation is that, since it is only the models that suggest what data needs to be gathered and thrown onto the maps, the connection to the cultural theories is tantamount for the relevance of cultural geography (p.180).  

This suggests that a model palette is a key resource for the cultural geographer, using distinctions sussed out by cultural theorists in other settings to at least start out from. Here are some of the more interesting models that Jackson depicts in his book.

There is the model of social closure by Frank Parkin, a Weberian redevelopment of Marxist class theory (cf. Frank Parkin, Marxism and class theory: A bourgeois critique, London (Tavistock) 1979) (cf. Jackson's exposition pp.53f; graphic Figure 3.1 on p.55), which is concerned with understanding the way in which dominant groups express their power (hegemony) over subordinate groups. Given the two units, and the uni-directional arrow of dominance, there is either the scenario where the dominant group manages to dominate and project its power over the subordinate group (Parkin terms this exclusionary closure), or the subordinate group manages to exert power over the dominant group (Parkin terms this usurpationary power) [the London Dock Strike of 1889 comes to mind, RCK]. Furthermore, the exclusionary closure can be coupled into a kind of "pecking order" called dual closure, when an intermediate group is identified, which is both dominated by the dominant group but dominates itself over the subordinate group. Jackson gives the example of the Upper and Middle Class dominating the white male working class, which in turn dominates the black & female working class (cf. Figure 3.1 on p.55).

There is also the model of linguistic structuration, as developed by Anthony Giddens (cf. Central Problems in Social Theory, London (Macmillan), 1979; The Constitution of Society, Cambridge (Polity Press) 1985) (p.157). As Peter Jackson explains,

Systems of grammar have no independent existence; they represent the outcome of many individual acts of speech, sedimented through time into rules and conventions. Language is a structure of signification that is reproduced in social practice. Like other practices, however, it does not exist outside social relations of power. Grammatical rules and other linguistic conventions provide a system of sanctions through which certain practices are legitimized and social norms enforced (see Figure 7.1). (p.157)

The cited Figure 7.1 depicts a tabular structure of boxes, where each box is connected to its surrounding neighbors by lines (not arrows). The contents of these boxes runs as follows:

• INTERACTION --- communication --- power --- sanction
• (MODALITY) --- interpretative scheme --- facility --- norm
• STRUCTURE --- signification --- domination --- legitimation 

Unfortunately, Jackson provides no example application, as he had done with the other models or research results that he describes, leaving this schematic somewhat abstract and a mere grab-bag of distinctions that might be employed.

In conclusion, there is an important caveat to raise regarding mapping with respect to the relationship between time and space. In the context of discussing the micro-geography of prostitution (cf. Figure 5.3, p.119), Jackson warns of the danger of the reduction or exclusion of the temporal dimension in the map making static---"freezing" in Jackson's terminology, with scare-quotes in the original---an inherently dynamic process, as "prostitutes themselves adapt their spatial behaviour to prevailing circumstances, constantly moving between and within cities" (p.118). 

For the mapping of graffiti and gang violence, I believe, this would mean that different temporal slices might give different indications of contestedness; furthermore, as gang territories shift or gangs are absorbed, the data has to be adjusted or culled accordingly.

More geographical river and traveling Information

Here is a bunch of Gazetteers that were developed for the rivers in the US of A. Where not mentioned differently, all scans are on the Internet Archive.

• Samuel Cumings, The Western Navigator, 
• the edition of 1822 (Cincinnati Virtual Library).
• Samuel Cumings, The Western Pilot
  ("containing charts of the Ohio River, and of the Mississippi, from the mouth of the Missouri to the Gulf of Mexico ; accompanied with directions for navigating the same, and a gazetteer, or description of the towns on their banks, tributary streams, &c. ; also, a variety of matter interesting to travelers, and all concerned in the navigation of those rivers" as the title of the 1834 edition promises).
• the edition of 1829.
• the edition of 1832.
• the edition of 1834.
• the edition of 1836.
• the edition of 1839.
• the edition of 1840.
• the edition of 1845.
• the edition of 1847.
• George Conclin, Conclin's New River Guide
• the edition of 1849.

Conclin's River Guide has an amusing summary of the state of the City of Nauvoo, with some interesting problems and omissions:

NAUVOO, opposite, in Hancock county, 111., is the site of the celebrated Mormon city, which was laid out about 1840, by Joseph Smith and his followers. It is situated on a handsome plain, on an elevated bank, extending for some distance from the river. The city was laid out on a very extensive plan, and intended to be the great city, to which all should look, as the Jews do toward Jerusalem. A great many houses were erected, some of them on a very magnificent scale, and the city was fast being filled with the adherents of that sect, from all parts of the country. A temple was also in course of erection, which, for vastness of dimensions and splendor of design,was intended to be without a rival in the Union. But, difficulties having arisen among the members of the community, and between them and the citizens of the surrounding country, Joseph Smith, the Lieutenant General of the Nauvoo Legion, and High Priest, and Hiram, his brother, were arrested, and thrown into prison, in Carthage, the county-seat, where they were, on the 27th of June, 1844, murdered, by an armed mob, in disguise, who overpowered the guard, stationed at the jail. New troubles subsequently arising, the Mormons were expelled from the state. Many of them returned to their former homes, in the states, reduced in circumstances, and enfeebled by toil and sickness but a large body banded together, and started toward Oregon [sic!], with the intention of there raising up a city, which should fill the place of that one, which had proved so disastrous to them. Nauvoo has since declined rapidly. A religious denomination were about making a contract for the purchase of the Temple, for a college, but it was destroyed in October, 1848, by an incendiary, who fired it in the cupola, and it is now a heap of ruins. (pp.73-74)

Studying William Darby (Part I)

This post looks at William Darby's work for contributions to our understanding of Upstate New York during the time when Palmyra was settled up to the "Reign of Rochester".

• The emigrant's guide to the western and southwestern states and territories (1818)
• Mentions neither Palmyra nor Rochester
• Description of the Climate of New York in Chapter VI, where the state of Ohio is described, starting (pp.218ff)
• Describes the then-county of Ontario and the Genesee region (pp.268-270), pointing out the fertility of the soil and the production of salt and gypsum (p.270)
• Gives distance tables  for travel from New York and Pittsburgh via St Louis to New Orleans (pp.270ff)
• Gives post lines and distances for the journey from Albany to Buffalo via Canandaigua (pp.279f)
• Gives a small population table from 1810 for Ontario County (p.310f)
• A Tour from the City of New York to Detroit (1819) 
• Mentions neither Palmyra nor Rochester
• Gives details of Stay in Canandaigua (pp.129-153; pp.212-214; p.224)
• A description of the route for the Erie Canal in Addendum No 11 (pp.XXVII ff) and some general remarks on the landscape between Albany and Buffalo.
• Darby's Edition of Brooks' Universal Gazetteer (1823)
• The description of the goods ready for shipping at the village of Herkimer (p.713 col 2) enumerates typical goods and estimates their value at $250,000 [sic!]. 
• Using a packet boat to drive up the Erie Canal just before it extended to Rochester (it stopped at Heartwell's Basin in Pittsford, 8 miles south of Rochester). Darby makes it clear that travel is interrupted to sleep on land overnight (p.714 col 1), even though his 40 ton boat had "elegant accommodations";  Darby staid in Palmyra.
• Darby also notes the danger of the Cayuga swamps, were 2000 (!) men were employed to push through, many of them contracting sickness and some of them dying (p.714 col 1).
• At the end of Note 1 (p.716 col 1), the transport statistics and tolls for the canal are given, and the amounts and the value is stupendous.
• In Note 2, (p.716 col 2), Darby walks down the list of the locks and their drops, touching upon Palmyra.
• In Note 3, (p.718 col 2-p.719 col 1) Darby predicts the future prosperity of Rochester, as it "is unquestionably destined to become one of the greatest inland manufacturing and commercial sites in the United States" (p.719 col 1). The canal description indicates that it passes "the flourishing villages of Palmyra and Lyons in Ontario county" (p.719 col 1).
• Darby lists Palmyra as belonging to Ontario County of New York, and gives the 1820 population with 3724.
• Darby describes Canandaigua as one of the most "thriving villages" in the interior of the US (p.153 col 2), as the seat of justice for Ontario County. Only gives population levels for the township, not the village proper.
• Darby's Universal Gazetteer, 2nd edition (1827) 
• Has the same Erie Canal discussion in New York section, pp.548 col 1-549 col 2.
• Mentions Palmyra on p.595 col 1, but only gives population for 1820.
• Mentions Rochester on p.679 col 2, but gives no population, mentions flourishing status.
• Canandaigua mentioned on p.123 col 2, but gives only overall population for the township.
• Geographical, Historical and Statistical Repository (1828)
• Concerned with Pennsylvania, this prototype for a new publication project mentions the Erie Canal only, but not Palmyra or Canandaigua.
• View of the United States: Volumes 1 & 2 (1828) 
• The discussion of New York commences on p.566 (which implies volume 2 for the two-volume editions).
• Lyons is considered the main city of Wayne County (though no population is provided for the county) on p.572.
• Rochester is the main town of Monroe County (which equally lacks a population) (p.571), but Rochester is singled out for its rapid population rise that puts it third behind New York City and Albany only for city size in NY. 
• New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1833) 
• Palmyra is discussed on p.392, col 2, where it is described as having "an academy, factories, several churches" and "considerable trade".
• Palmyra township is discussed in the same location, p.392 col 2, with having a good soil and being next to Mud creek, which provides for mill sites, but is not considered navigable; the access to the Erie Canal is emphasized. 
• Rochester (p.476 col 2) is the most populous and important village in the state; the confluence of the head of the navigable waters of the Genesee River from Lake Ontario and of the local railroad (!). Darby specifically mentions the rapid rise of the population, how in 1812 it was a dump. The flour mills and the capital invested in these is described, and a detailed table of goods and their values provided. In addition to 100 stores the village boasts 1 daily and 5 weekly newspapers.
• Canandaigua (p.84 col 1-2) receives another rave review, for possessing "a bank" on its straight broad street, one mile long, as well as for its flourishing female seminary. 

In our next installment, we will look at how these assessments change under the view of the final works that Darby published during his long career.

• New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1834)
• New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1836)
• Darby's Universal Geographical Dictionary (1843)

(to be continued)

Appendix

The following works were ignored.

• Mnemonika or Chronological Tablets (1812) 
• Mnemonika or Table Of Memory: A Register of Events (1829)

The irrepressible William Darby

We had already discussed William Darby in the context of the Erie Canal, Fawn Brodie's reconstruction of Palmyra, and the enumeration of Gazettes relevant to Palmyra. But Darby was a prodigious author on matters geographical, and it bears enumerating some of his other works that might further our research.

• Mnemonika or Chronological Tablets (1812) 
• (2nd scan)
• The emigrant's guide to the western and southwestern states and territories (1818)
• A Tour from the City of New York to Detroit (1819) 
• (microfilm)
• Darby's Edition of Brooks' Universal Gazetteer (1823)
• Darby's Universal Gazetteer, 2nd edition (1827) 
• (2nd scan)
• Geographical, Historical and Statistical Repository (1828)
• View of the United States:
• Volume I, 1828
• Volume 2, 1828
• Volumes 1 and 2 (1828) (2nd scan)
• Mnemonika or Table Of Memory: A Register of Events (1829)
• New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1833) 
• (2nd scan)
• New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1834)
• New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1836)
• Darby's Universal Geographical Dictionary (1843)

Gazettes relevant for the History of Palmyra

The Wayne County Gazetteers are all a bit late for our purposes

• The Wayne County Gazetteer from 1867, by Hamilton Child.
• The Ontario County Gazetteer from 1867, also by Hamilton Child.

The State of New York Gazetteers are very interesting, of course.

• The Gazetteer of the State of New York from 1824, by Horatio Gates Spafford, from 1824.
• The Gazetteer of the State of New York from 1842, by John Disturnell (2nd scan).
• The Gazetteer of the State of New York from 1843, revised and expanded from the 1842 edition, by John Disturnell and Orville Luther Holley.
• The Gazetteer of the State of New York from 1860, by John Homer French.
• The Gazetteer of the State of New York from 1872 by Franklin Benjamin Hough.

Then there are larger geographical contexts, such as New England

• The New England Gazetteer from 1839, by John Hayward. 
• The New England Gazetteer from 1841, by John Hayward.
• The American Gazetteer from 1797, by Jedidiah Morse (microform).

... or the US ...

• The View of the United States by William Darby:
• Volume I, 1828
• Volume 2, 1828
• Volumes 1 and 2 (1828) (2nd scan)
• The New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1833) by William Darby
• (2nd scan)
• The New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1834) by William Darby
• The New Gazetteer of the United States of America (1836) by William Darby
• The Complete Reference Gazetteer of the United States of North America for 1839, by William Chapin (2nd scan).
• The Complete Reference Gazetteer of the United States of North America for 1840, by William Chapin.
• The Complete Reference Gazetteer of the United States of North America for 1843, by William Chapin.
• The Gazetteer of the United States and the West Indies from 1842 by Bishop Davenport.
• The Complete and Statistical Descriptive Gazetteer of the United States for 1843, by Daniel Haskell and John Calvin Smith (2nd scan, 3rd scan, 4th scan).
• The Complete and Statistical Descriptive Gazetteer of the United States for 1844, by Daniel Haskell and John Calvin Smith.
• The Complete and Statistical Descriptive Gazetteer of the United States for 1845, by Daniel Haskell and John Calvin Smith.
• The Gazeteer of the United States for 1853 by John Hayward.
• Fannings Illustrated Gazetteer of the United States from 1853, by Phelps, Fanning and Company (2nd scan).
• The New and Complete Statistical Gazetteer of the United States of America for 1853, by Richard S. Fisher, MD (1st scan, 2nd scan, 3rd scan). 
• The Gazetteer of the United States from 1855 by Richard S. Fisher, MD.
• The North-American section of Harper's Statistical Gazetteer from 1855, by John Calvin Smith.

Or even the entire world.

• The improved edition of Darby's Universal Gazetteer from 1827 by William Darby and Richard Brooks (whose work it seems to expand);
• Brooks' Gazetteer was also continued by John Marshall in 1832.
• Darby's Universal Gazetteer, 2nd edition (1827) by William Darby
• (2nd scan)
• John Ramsey McCulloch's Universal Gazetteer from 1843 

There is also Emigration Literature that is gazetteer like in structure.

• The emigrant's guide to the western and southwestern states and territories (1818) William Darby
• Western Tourists and Emigrants Guide from 1840, Joseph Hutchins Colton and John Calvin Smith (covers Ohio, Missouri and Illinois, among others).

Some curiosities that we picked up along the way

• Mnemonika or Chronological Tablets, (1812), William Darby 
• (2nd scan)
• A Missionary Gazetteer from 1832.
• A British-America Guidebook from 1859 with US in section IV

Routes of English Mormons in 1841

In the context of his discussion of Mormonism, Clark in his Gleanings reports a letter by John Hall, Rector of St Peter, in Ashtubla, Ohio, on the origin of Mormonism around Kirtland, Ohio, that gives an indication of the travel routes of newly arrived Mormon converts from England (pp.317-318).

John Hall in his letter dated June 5th, 1841, notes

It is indeed astonishing that so low an imposture should ever have been countenanced at all; much more so that hundreds of English converts should recently have come over to it, and that four hundred more should now be daily expected to take shipping at Buffalo, in order to pass up our Lakes to join the Western Mormons ! (p.318)

Literature

• Rev. John A. Clark, D.D., Gleanings by the Way, Philadelphia (Simon) -- New York (Carter), 1842.

Geographical Non-Determinism

Winfried Schenk writes in historische Geographie 3rd Ed, WBG 2011:

... um dem Vorwurf des Geodeterminismus vorzubeugen, ist festzuhalten, dass die Historische Geographie dabei keine zeitlosen Gunst- und Ungunsträume kennt, sondern nur zeittypisch zu nutzende Potentiale ....